Seals, Stigma and Survival

What is stigma?

While there is no set definition for stigma (Burke, 2020), in general stigma refers to a negative perception of someone, something or some way of being or conducting oneself; “In its most literal usage the term stigma refers to some form of mark or stain” (Page, 1984, p. 2) and “is an attribute that conveys devalued stereotypes” (Clair, 2018, p. 1) with the intent to be “deeply discrediting” for whomever or whatever is attributed the stigma (Goffman, 1963, p. 3).

Why does stigma matter?

Stigma matters because it signifies devaluation and the signally out of someone or something as undesirable and unwanted. This devaluation in turn can be used to justify negative, and potentially harmful, attitudes, actions, behaviours and ways of thinking toward entities and individuals. Bruce Link and Jo Phelan (2001, p. 371) in their work on conceptualizing stigma note that “[a]n almost immediate consequence of successful negative labeling and stereotyping is a general downward placement of a person in a status hierarchy”. The loss of social status contributes to an increase risk of discrimination, cultural stereotyping and negative social and psychological experiences for the stigmatized group or individual. Specifically status loss and discrimination are “facilitated by labeling, stereotyping, and separating” (Barnett et al., 2016, p. 449).

How is stigma acquired?

Stigma “acquires its meaning through the emotion it generates within the person bearing it and the feeling and behaviour toward him of those affirming it” (Page, 1984, p. 1). Robert Page’s work on stigma suggests that “[a]ny discussion of socially inferior attributes (stigmas) necessarily requires some consideration of the question of social normality” (1984, p. 2) and “there is likely to be some agreement concerning what can loosely be regarded as the ‘major’ social norms in society” (1984, p. 3). While not all norm infractions necessarily result in stigmas for norm violators, “stigma has tended to be associated with those inferior attributes which are commonly regarded as major norm infractions” (1984, p. 4).

Link and Phelan (2001, p. 367) argue that “stigmatization is entirely contingent on access to social, economic, and political power that allows the identification of differentness, the construction of stereotypes, the separation of labeled persons into distinct categories, and the full execution of disapproval, rejection, exclusion, and discrimination”. Specifically Link and Phelan point to four interrelated components that must converge for stigma to exist.

1. “people distinguish and label human differences”;
2. “dominant cultural beliefs link labelled persons to undesirable characteristics – to negative stereotypes”;
3. “labeled persons are placed in distinct categories so as to accomplish some degree of separation of ‘us’ from ‘them’”;  and
4. “labeled persons experience status loss and discrimination that lead to unequal outcomes”.

For stigma to form and ‘stick’ power is a central element of the relationship between a “stigmatized social group and the dominant referent group” (Barnett et al., 2016, p. 449). Specifically, “without the power to make devaluing labels result in status loss and discrimination, the cognitive components fail to result in “stigma” in any meaningful sense because they fail to affect the life chances of the labeled group” (Ibid). In effect, “[p]ower enables stigmatizers to limit the life chances of the stigmatized” (Ibid).